Total viable aerobic heterotrophic bacteria (THB) associated with egg, nauplius, zoea, mysis and postlarva of Penaeus indicus and seawater in a hatchery system were estimated for three years from 1981 to 1984. The bacterial population varied from 1.3 × 104 to 8.72 × l07/g in egg, 1.5 × 104 to 6.17 × 107/g in nauplius, 4 × 103 to 3.14 × 107/g in zoea, 1.35 × 106 to 1.25 × 108/g in mysis, 1.6 × 105 to 8.44 × 106/g in postlarva. Water contained a THB population of 1.2 X 105 to 2.8 × 108/100 ml. Species of Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Acineto-bacter, Moraxella, members of the family Enterobac-teriaceae, Micrococcus, Bacillus, and Coryneform group were encountered. Gram-negative bacteria were found to be dominant in all stages and showed an increase from egg (81.3%) to postlarva (92.7%). However such an increase was not recorded in the respective water samples even though gram-negative bacteria were found to be dominant. Vibrio spp. were found in high numbers in postlarvae and it was to be increasing from egg (10.4%) to postlarva (80%). The number of larvae in culture pools gradually declined as the nauplii metamorphosed to postlarvae through zoea and mysis. In general, coincidence of higher percentage of Vibrio spp. and larval mortality was recorded. Physico-chemical factors such as salinity, temperature, pH, oxygen, inorganic phosphorus, organic phosphorus, inorganic nitrogen and organic nitrogen of water did not show much variation in the same set of pools. Relationship between the physico-chemical parameters, bacterial population and the number of larvae is discussed.

Nursing postlarvae of Penaeus merguiensis in the same tank as rearing always results in low survival rates, around 30%. One reason is that stocking density for P1 is too high for postlarvae grown to P20 size. Another reason may be that it is impossible to sufficiently clean a tank containing culture stock. In order to overcome the first constraint and to test whether the second is valid, rearing of nauplii to early postlarval stage was done in one tank, then early postlarvae were moved to another tank for nursing to P20. Rearing was done in rectangular, concrete tanks (5 m × 5 m × 2m) of 50 ton capacity, with an initial stocking density of 20-40 nauplii/ℓ. Chaetoceros sp. at a density of 3-4 × 104 cell/ml, or Tetraselmis sp. at 1-3 × 104 cell/ml were fed to zoea stage, then rotifer was given when the larvae metamorphosed to mysis stage. Within 8-10 days, when all of the larvae metamorphosed to postlarval stage, they were transferred to the nursing tank. Postlarval nursing was done in rectangular, concrete tanks with a capacity of 12 or 30 tons. The stocking rate was 12 postlarvae/ℓ in the 12-ton tanks and 8 postlarvae/ℓ in the 30-ton tanks. The early postlarvae were fed constantly with brine shrimp, and the older postlarvae were fed 4-5 times daily with squid meat. Fifty to seventy percent of seawater was exchanged, and siphoning of food remnants was done daily. The postlarvae grew to an intermediate size (1.0-2.5 cm total length) for stocking in grow-out ponds within 12 to 20 days. The results of rearing in 50-ton tanks with an initial stocking density of 20-25 postlarvae/ℓ, 25-30 postlarvae/ℓ and 30-40 postlarvae/ℓ produced survival rates of 74.3%, 63.6% and 47.6%, respectively. The survival rate for nursing in 12-ton tanks, with stocking density of 12 postlarvae/ℓ was 85.0% and for 30-ton tanks with stocking density of 8 postlarvae/ℓ was 61.7%. These results seem to indicate that the rearing and nursing of shrimp would be more efficient if carried out in separate tanks.

A partial unilateral ablation was carried out on immature females of the pink shrimp Penaeus notialis. They were maintained in 1,600 ℓ asbestos-cement tanks together with apparently mature males, not submitted to treatment, at a ratio of 2 females: 1 male. A quick development of the ovary was attained, which did not present significant differences in average diameter of the ovocytes in the anterior, median, and posterior lobes, and with similar histological characteristics to those described for naturally mature females. Viable spawnings were obtained three days after the treatment and onwards. The larvae obtained showed normal activity and development.

South Carolina has some 28,500 ha of impounded coastal wetlands. These impoundments are remnants of the rice culture industry of the 19th century and are now of interest for waterflow management and possibly aquaculture. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the potential for extensive commercial culture of shrimp in salt-marsh impoundments with that for semi-intensive production of shrimp in highland ponds. A hypothetical farm consisting of four 8-ha impoundments or ponds was chosen as the basis for the analysis, and it was assumed that only one crop of shrimp could be produced per year. Two alternative strategies for stocking the impoundments were evaluated: option 1, stock by natural recruitment via tide gates; option 2, stock at low density (25,000/ha) with hatchery-reared postlarvae. Highland ponds were to be stocked at a density of 75,000 PL/ha with hatchery-reared animals. Major fixed costs other than land purchase were considered, including renovation of existing impoundments by cross-diking to form 8-ha units and addition of extra tide gates. Estimates of annual and variable costs for postlarvae (where applicable), feed, labor, chemicals, pumping, supplies, vehicle use, mowing, interest, overhead, and miscellaneous items were also included in the analysis. Results indicated that extensive shrimp culture in salt water impoundments is likely to be a break-even or profitable activity for production levels of 90 kg whole shrimp/ha for stocking option 1, while option 2 would require yields of ≥225 kg/ha. In comparison, semi-intensive culture in highland ponds is likely to be successful if yields of ≥ 800 kg/ha are obtained. This preliminary analysis suggests that both extensive and semi-intensive culture of shrimp may be economically feasible in South Carolina, but this potential is as yet un-proven and shrimp aquaculture must be considered a high risk venture in this area.

Incubation of Penaeus monodon eggs and rearing of different larval stages were undertaken at nine temperature-salinity combinations. The eggs, nauplii, zoea and mysis from one spawner kept as stock culture at ambient temperatures of 26-30°C and salinity of 32-33 ppt were exposed to temperature levels of 23, 28 and 33°C and salinity levels of 23, 28 and 33 ppt. Eggs and nauplii survived the sudden change of temperature and salinity (from ambient to experimental) but the zoea and mysis did not. However, salinities of 23 and 28 ppt in combination with any of the temperature levels produced weak larvae. Highest mean hatching rate was obtained at the temperature-salinity combination of 23°C-33 ppt, followed by 28°C-33 ppt and 33°C-33 ppt. Incubation periods for these treatments were 22, 16 and 14 hr, respectively. Survival rate of nauplius (taken from stock cultures) to first zoeal stage was highest at 28°C-33 ppt, followed by 33°C-33 ppt and 23°C-33 ppt with molting time of 50, 45 and 75 hr, respectively. The nauplii exposed to 33°C-33 ppt molted to zoea stage within 38 to 40 hr but later died. Those exposed to 23°C-33 ppt and 28°C-33 ppt reached zoea stage within 57 to 60 hr and 48 to 50 hr, respectively. Similarly, the nauplii taken from the stock cultures and reared until postlarval stage (P1) under experimental conditions completed the zoea and mysis stages in 9 to 11 days at 28°C C-33 ppt, 7 to 9 days at 33°C-33 ppt, and 13 to 15 days at 23°C-33 ppt. Statistical analysis showed that salinity had highly significant effect on rates of hatching of eggs and survival from nauplius to first zoeal stage but not temperature although the latter had an apparent effect. However, both factors affected time of hatching of eggs and time of molting from nauplius to zoea. Interaction effect was significant only on rate and time of hatching. Different sources (spawners) of eggs and nauplii did not have significant effect on time of hatching and molting from nauplius to zoea, but significantly affected the hatching rate of eggs and survival rate of nauplii to zoea stage.

An adequate supply of hatchery produced shrimp fry is the major constraint to the intensification and growth of shrimp culture practices. If even 20% of the more than 500,000 ha of the world's existing tropical and sub-tropical brackishwater ponds were to stock at the relatively low density of 50,000 fry/ha/year, it would take thousands of new hatcheries to produce the 25 billion fry required. The availability of artificially produced diets to replace cultured live food organisms would alleviate many of the problems currently limiting shrimp hatchery production by: (i) reducing the level of technical skill required to operate a hatchery; (ii) assuring a reliable supply of a nutritionally balanced larval feed; (iii) reducing sources of contamination and larval disease; and (iv) simplifying hatchery design and capital cost requirements, thereby facilitating small scale hatchery development. Aquatic farms has been working with the Mars Microencapsulation Research Group (MMRG) to develop techniques for adapting current shrimp hatchery technology and design so that MMRG feeds can be used in existing hatcheries as a live feed replacement. Feeding trials have been conducted in commercial hatcheries in Hawaii, Malaysia and Thailand. The results of these trials and the techniques employed are discussed. Growth and survival of larvae fed microencapsulated diets as total or partial replacement of live foods was comparable to larvae cultured in control tanks using the standard operating procedures of the hatchery in which the trials were conducted. In trials to date, larval survival from nauplii to postlarvae has been as high as 70%.

There are very few reports on the diseases, parasites, commensals and fouling in penaeid prawns. During the regular collection of marine and estuarine prawns in the east coast of India, a number were found to be infested with various organisms. The prawn Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) indicus, was infested with a microsporidian which causes a condition known as milk or cotton prawn. The infestation was spread throughout the abdominal musculature of the prawn. The marine prawn Parapenaeopsis stylifera had epibiotic growth of athecate hydrozoans, probably of the genus Tubularia, on the dorsal side of the carapace and abdominal segments. This is the first report of athecate hydrozoans infesting the prawn. The prawn Metapenaeopsis stridulans was observed to be parasitized by a bopyrid isopod, Orbione thielemanni and the prawn Sicyonia lancifera, parasitized by another bopyrid isopod, O. kemi. The bopyrid isopod O. kemi infesting the prawn S. lancifera is also recorded for the first time. Both bopyrid isopods were found in the branchial cavity of the prawns. The Pontoniinid prawn Chernocaris placunae is a commensal living in the mantle cavity of the bivalve, Placenta placenta. Barnacles were found attached to the carapace and first abdominal segment of the prawn, Parapenaeopsis uncta, whereas they were found in the telson region also in the prawn P. stylifera. Most of the barnacles were very small with a basal diameter of less than 1.5 mm.

The tiger prawn of India, Penaeus monodon Fabricius has a differential distribution in the two coasts of India. Density is high in the northeastern part of the Bay of Bengal gradually declining towards the mid-east and becoming quite scarce towards the south. On the west coast, the distribution is more sparse and limited to a few months, off Bombay. The only known inshore areas of capture fisheries are the Godavari estuarine system, and the lagoons off Orissa at Chilka and Madras at Pulicat. The only known offshore capture exists off the Orissa coast at Paradip and Puri extending south to Visakhapatnam and Kakinada Bay. The greatest production comes off the brackishwater "bheri" (wild culture) system in the extensive "sunderbans" of West Bengal on the northeast where millions of seed recruited to the Hooghly estuarine complex are drawn in along with tidal waters and "cultured." The distribution profoundly affects the maturity, breeding and recruitment of this highly euryhaline species. The distribution can be related to the cyclic currents in the Bay of Bengal which have a profound effect on the salinity and temperature profile. It can also be related to the immense quantity of freshwater inflow from the mighty Hooghly-Matlah-Roopnarayan Padma estuarine complex at the head of the Bay and the other major riverine estuaries on the mid-east coast viz., the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna. The pattern of circulation and estuarine flows is such that it might also positively influence the food distribution, both live and detrital, in this region. Ripe (gravid) and ripening females and males of P. monodon in the size range of 100-250 g are captured off Paradip coast in the not very deep (30-40 m) waters where coastal trawlers operate, from October through April corresponding to the post-monsoon stability in the water movement and the increasing salinity. This offers a good augury for setting up hatcheries in adjacent zones using naturally mature forms. Catch records from one major freezing plant are presented to indicate the density and distribution of the species at the Paradip-Puri coast.

There are a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which affect the normal routine activity of the prawn. The present study attempts to elucidate the optimum levels of various environmental factors for the culture of prawns. The salinity tolerance capacity of Penaeus (Melicertus) latisulcatus was estimated in 13 different test salinities from 0 to 60 ppt (at 5 ppt increments). The prawns can tolerate a wide salinity range of 20-50 ppt. Maximum survival, however, was between 25 to 45 ppt. The extreme low (0-10 ppt) and high (60 ppt) salinities were highly lethal to the prawns. The change in acclimation temperature from 30 to 35°C increased the upper incipient lethal level from 38.5 to 39.5°C. The prawns acclimated to 30°C tolerated 42°C for 275 sec and 45.5°C for 13 sec, while prawns acclimated to 35°C tolerated 42°C for 505 sec and 46.5°C for 11 sec. Prawns were acclimated to a salinity of 26 ppt and oxygen consumption was measured at 5, 15, 26, and 38 ppt in a continuous water-flow method. The total oxygen consumption showed an inverse relationship with weight. Oxygen consumption declined with increase in salinity. The resistance of prawns to hydrogen sulphide was tested in 18 different concentrations of sodium sulphide mixed with seawater. The prawns tolerated sodium sulphide concentrations up to 20 mg/ℓ. The dissolved oxygen in the water was found to be reduced to very low levels with the increase in the concentration of sodium sulphide (from 5.9 ml O2/ℓ to 0.54 ml O2/ℓ). This may cause heavy mortality of the prawns.

The tissue lipid content and fatty acid composition in the hepatopancreas, tail muscle and gonad of unablated and ablated Penaeus monodon were determined. Females at various stages of maturity were collected from offshore spawning grounds in Tigbauan and Guimbal, Iloilo, Philippines. Ablated females were reared in captivity. The hepatopancreas showed the highest lipid content at 15.72 to 25.20% in unablated females and 22.47 to 34.90% in ablated females. Fresh lipid levels averaged 2.60% with no marked variation throughout the maturation period. Ovarian lipid increased from 5.80% (unablated) and 7.50% (ablated) in Immature Ovaries to more than two-fold in Early Maturing Ovaries coupled with a drop in hepatopancreatic lipid suggesting lipid mobilization to the ovaries. In ablated females, ovarian lipid progressively increased to a maximum of 21.90% in Fully Mature Ovaries with a corresponding rise in hepatopancreatic lipid. Both the ovarian and hepatopancreatic lipids declined in spent females. Fatty acid profiles of the tissues consistently showed the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) 20:4ω6, 20:5ω3 and 22:6ω3. These fatty acids were reflected in the spawned egg. The lipid level in the hepatopancreas appeared to be inversely related to the total PUFA concentration in the ovaries. Lipid accumulation in ablated females was significantly higher than in unablated females. The findings suggest storage and subsequent utilization of lipids for maturation and spawning processes. The type of polyunsaturates present in the maturing ovaries is indicative of their metabolic and physiological importance in the reproductive process.