The use of commercial enrichers to improve the nutritional quality of live food in larviculture of milkfish was investigated. Fish were either fed rotifers cultured on Chlorella sp. and newly hatched Artemia nauplii (Control, Trt I) or rotifers and Artemia given DHA enrichment diets (DHA-treated, Trt II). Results showed survival was significantly better (P<0.05) in the DHA-treated fish than in the untreated fish after 25-day culture period. Although growth was not statistically different (P>0.05) between the control and DHA-treated fish during the hatchery phase, extensive rearing of the postlarvae (fry) in nursery ponds for another 60 days showed that DHA-treated fish exhibited significantly better (P<0.05) growth than the untreated fish. Opercular deformities in 85-day old milkfish juveniles were also significantly lower (P<0.05) in the DHA-treated fish than the control. Survival after nursery culture, however, was high for both treatments but not significantly different (P>0.05). The lack of a viable and reliable method of mass culturing copepods as live food in the hatchery makes the use of off-the-shelf commercial enrichment diets for rotifers and Artemia a practical option in the larval culture of milkfish.

This study investigated the effects of shelter surface area (SSA) on the feeding, growth and survival of the donkey-ear abalone, Haliotis asinina reared in mesh cages (0.38×0.38×0.28m) suspended in flow-through tanks (water volume = 6 m³). Cages had sections of polyvinylchloride (PVC) that provided shelters with surface area of 0.22 m², 0.44 m² and 0.66 m². Hatchery-produced abalone with initial shell length of 32 ± 1 mm and wet weight of 7.5 g were stocked at 50 individuals cage⁻¹ that corresponded to stocking densities of ca. 227, 113 and 75 abalone m⁻² of SSA. The ratios of shelter surface area to cage volume (SSA:CV) were 5.5, 11 and 16.5. Abalones were provided an excess red seaweed Gracilariopsis bailinae (= Gracilaria heteroclada) at weekly intervals over a 270-day culture period. Feeding rates (18–20% of wet weight), food conversion ratio (26–27) and percent survival (88–92%) did not differ significantly among treatments (p > 0.05). Body size at harvest ranged from 56 to 59 mm SL and 52 to 57 g wet body weight with significant differences between abalone reared at SSA 0.22 m² and 0.66 m² (p < 0.05). Abalone reared in cages with 0.66 m² SSA grew significantly faster at average daily growth rates of 132 μm and 188 mg day⁻¹. Stocking densities of 75–113m⁻² SSA in mesh cages suspended in flow-through tanks resulted in better growth of abalone fed red seaweed.

The effects of size, dry mass intake and nutritional value of the brackishwater cladoceran, Diaphanosoma celebensis, on the growth and survival of 15-30 day sea bass (Lates calcarifer) larvae reared in a static green water system were determined. The highest specific growth rate (29.4%/day) was attained in larvae fed a 1:1 combination of Artemia nauplii and adult Diaphanosoma but it was not significantly different (p>0.05) from fish fed only adult Diaphanosoma (28.8%/day) or only juvenile instar Diaphanosoma (28.6%/day). Survival rates of larvae (92.4-99.0%) fed the different live diets did not significantly differ (p>0.05). Larvae markedly prefered juvenile instar Diaphanosoma over Artemia nauplii and adult Diaphanosoma. The crude protein contents of juvenile Diaphanosoma (58.7%), adult Diaphanosoma (58.3%) and Artemia (56.7%) were substantially high and satisfied the dietary protein requirements of larvae. The fatty acid profile of the sea bass fry reflected the lipid composition of the live diet. Improved growth, survival and dry mass intake in larvae indicate the potential of juvenile Diaphanosoma in the hatchery rearing of sea bass larvae.

A didymozoid trematode encapsulated in the gills of orange-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides Hamilton, was observed in October 1997 and September 1999 among pond-reared fish in the Philippines. Capsule prevalence was 33% and 18% and mean intensity 2 and 1, respectively. The opaque-white and yellowish capsules were found only on the first gill arch and were attached lengthwise along the posterior surface of the primary gill filaments. When the capsules were opened, long thread-like worms were revealed, which were identified as Gonapodasmius epinepheli Abdul-Salam, Sreelatha and Farah. The parasites were encapsulated between the basement membrane of the epithelium and the efferent artery of the gill filament. The response of the host included mild hyperplasia of the interlamellar epithelium and an increase in the number of mucous cells.

The approximate levels of dietary protein and energy that would sustain good growth and survival of the mangrove red snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal) were determined in two feeding experiments. In the preliminary experiment, six fish meal-based diets were formulated to contain three protein levels (35%, 42.5% and 50%) and two lipid levels (6% and 12%) for each protein, with dietary energy ranging from 14.6 MJ kg⁻¹ to 20.5 MJ kg⁻¹. The protein to energy (P/E) ratios of diets ranged from 20.6 mg protein kJ⁻¹ to 27.5 mg protein kJ⁻¹. Diets were fed for 100 days to triplicate groups of snappers with an average initial weight of 24.8 ± 0.4 g. No significant interaction between different levels of protein and lipid was observed. Survival rates (93.8% to 100%), feed conversion ratios (FCR) (2.61–3.06) and condition factors (K) were not affected by different dietary treatments. Regardless of lipid level, fish fed 50% protein diets had a significantly higher specific growth rate (SGR) than fish fed the 35% protein diets, but not compared with the 42.5% diets (P < 0.05). Increasing lipid to 12% in all protein levels resulted in no improvement in growth over the 6% level. Fish body moisture did not vary while lipid levels based on dry matter were high (27.9% to 33.7%). Snapper appear to require more than 40% dietary protein and a high dietary energy level for good growth. In the second experiment, fish (21.1 ± 0.1 g) in four replicate groups were fed for 94 days with three diets (39%, 44% and 49% protein with P/E ratios of 21.1, 23.3 and 25.5 mg protein kJ⁻¹ respectively) containing similar dietary energy levels of about 19 MJ kg⁻¹. Average final weight, SGR and FCR were significantly higher in diets containing 44% and 49% protein diets (P > 0.05). There were no differences in survival rates, protein efficiency ratio (PER) and nutrient composition of snapper flesh. All fish had fatty livers. Results indicated that the diet containing 44% protein with a P/E ratio of 23.3 mg protein kJ⁻¹ was optimum for snapper growth under the experimental conditions used in the study.

The performance of wild Epinephelus coioides juveniles was compared by feeding with live tilapia juveniles, fish by-catch, and formulated diet for 5 months in grow-out ponds. To minimize cannibalism, the groupers were graded into small (BW=24.9±7.3 g), medium (45.8±5.7 g), and large (84.1±30.0 g) size groups as block in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and reared in nine 350-m² ponds. To supply the tilapia juveniles, adult tilapia were grown 2 months prior to stocking of grouper at a rate of 15 tilapia/grouper. Grouper fed by-catch were significantly higher (P<0.01) than the other treatments in terms of final length and total production. The quality of by-catch could be gleaned by its efficient feed conversion ratio (FCR) of 1.0 (dry basis), significantly better (P<0.01) than the formulated diet that had an FCR of 2.8. Using by-catch, 47% of the harvest weighed >400 g and only 14% was classified <200 g. The cost of juvenile grouper and feeds represented 88–89% of the total investment in all treatments. Economic sensitivity analysis showed that a combination of improvement in factors such as price of grouper juveniles, feeds, yield, survival, and FCR would result in higher return-on-investment (ROI). When cost and returns were considered, feeding juveniles with by-catch was more profitable because it resulted in net income of Php 361,623/ha/year, an ROI of 155%, and a payback period of 0.4 year. The results clearly show that these economic indicators appear to be attractive, thus making grouper pond culture using by-catch a viable industry. More research efforts should, however, be directed towards developing a cost-effective formulated diet for the grow-out culture of E. coioides.

This study examined the influence of different carotenoids on growth and some immune indices in rainbow trout. Six semipurified casein-based diets were formulated to contain one of three different carotenoids: astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and β-carotene, at 100 mg kg⁻¹, each of them with vitamins A, C and E either added or omitted. The two control diets contained no carotenoids and were either with or without the vitamins. Rainbow trout weighing about 140 g were fed the diets for 9 weeks. Specific growth rate, feed:gain ratio and nonspecific immune parameters were determined. Growth and feed conversion were similar among the groups. Immune parameters like production of reactive oxygen species by head kidney leukocytes and plasma total immunoglobulin levels did not vary with the treatment. Serum complement activity in both β-carotene groups and the vitamin-containing astaxanthin group were significantly higher than both the control fish. Serum lysozyme activity in the vitamin-containing β-carotene and astaxanthin groups were significantly different from both control groups. Phagocytic activity was also high in the vitamin-containing β-carotene and astaxanthin groups compared with the controls. For phagocytic index, in addition to the foregoing groups, the vitamin-containing canthaxanthin group gave better results compared with the controls. The vitamin-containing astaxanthin and β-carotene groups also exhibited better nonspecific cytotoxicity for the peripheral blood lymphocytes at all effector-to-target ratios. Thus, among the carotenoids studied, β-carotene and astaxanthin elevated humoral factors such as serum complement and lysozyme activity, as well as cellular factors such as phagocytosis and nonspecific cytotoxicity. In the presence of the vitamins the carotenoids exerted a greater influence on the bio-defense mechanisms of rainbow trout.

Twenty-month-old bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson), were fed prepared dry diets for 20 months in cages in Laguna de Bay, Philippines, to determine the effect on reproductive performance. The experimental diets were similar in composition except for the combinations of vitamins being tested. Diet 1 was supplemented with vitamins A, E and C; diets 2, 3 and 4 each lacked one of the supplementary vitamins; and diet 5 did not include any vitamin supplementation. Bighead carp that relied solely on natural food without a prepared diet served as a control. The total of six treatments each had two replicates. Results showed that the onset of gonad maturation was 2–3 months earlier in the fish that were fed the prepared diets regardless of vitamin supplementation, when compared with the fish that were fed natural food (control). Moreover, the prepared diets enhanced egg hatchability which was significantly higher in fish that were fed diet 1 (+ vitamins A, E and C, 80.5 ± 18.1%) and diet 3 (– vitamin E, 78.5 ± 1.1%) than in those fish that were fed natural food (control) (36.5 ± 31.3%). Mean number of 3-day-old larvae was highest in fish fed on diet 1 (34 525 ± 1732), followed closely by fish that were fed diet 3 (32 420 ± 3909). A low number of 3-day-old larvae was obtained from fish fed the natural diet (14 490 ± 4331) as well as in fish that were fed diet 2 (– vitamin A, 14 347 ± 4863), diet 4 (– vitamin C, 21 407 ± 5840) and diet 5 (– vitamin A, E and C, 12 191 ± 1439). Other criteria for reproduction such as relative fecundity, fertilization rate, and hatching rate did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) among treatments. The addition of vitamins also had no significant effects on weight gain of adult fish.

A total of 24 morphological abnormalities associated with the Runt-Deformity Syndrome (RDS) is reported for the first time in 17- to 18-mo old F₃ generation Penaeus monodon (>40 mm CL) belonging to three breeding families. Although diagnosed as positive for the infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV), the shrimp appeared normal at 9 to 10 mo when they were procured from a commercial facility in Antique, central Philippines, in September 1996. The abnormalities affected either specific shrimp organs and appendages (e.g., rostrum, antennae, uropods) or the whole body (e.g., shell color and hardness). A two-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate differences in the morphometric characters rostral length (RL), carapace length (CL), abdominal length (AL), body length (BL), total length (TL), carapace width (CW), 1^st abdominal segment width (AS₁W), and body weight (BW) and the morphometric ratios RL:CL, CL:AL, and CW:AS₁W by sex and stock (3 families and wild controls). Female P. monodon had significantly larger CL, AL, BL, TL, CW, and BW than males, regardless of stock. Wild females had longer BL and TL than cultured ones, whereas wild male shrimp had shorter CL, CW, and BW than cultured male P. monodon. Cultured shrimp had significantly higher CL:AL and CW:AS₁W ratios and lower RL:CL ratio compared to wild P. monodon. The shorter and narrower abdomen relative to the carapace gave the shrimp a “runted” or dwarf appearance characteristic of RDS earlier described in Litopenaeus vannamei with IHHNV. Confirmed by parallel studies, IHHNV infection of the cultured P. monodon may account for their cuticular deformities, slower growth, and smaller sizes. The appearance of deformities in older (and bigger) P. monodon suggests that RDS expression is dependent on age and size. Examination for external abnormalities and evaluation of the three morphometric ratios may complement existing screening protocols for diseases and growth rates in shrimp breeding programs. Cultured giant tiger prawn also had lower sperm count, greater proportion of dead and abnormal sperm, and lower incidence of mating (absence of sperm in thelyca) compared to wild P. monodon.

Most mangrove reforestation program in the Philippines and elsewhere in Asia focus on the genus Rhizophora, hence there is a need to identify and develop planting and harvesting techniques for other mangrove species, especially those in high demand by coastal communities. The yellow mangrove Ceriops tagal is one such species. Its many uses as firewood, poles for fish-corrals and traps, house construction, medicine (wound cleansing, treatment of hemmorhages), in the production of dyes (for dyeing fish nets, ropes, cloth and rice as a festive food) and as a mordant from bark are widely reported from the Philippines and all over Southeast and South Asia. An extensive sea-based industry for collecting C. tagal bark or tungog existed in the Philippines in the 1930s-1950s. It is heretofore described as undocumented industry including the boats used, collecting sites, markets, financing system and profit-sharing. Because C. tagal lacks reserve meristems, cutting of the trunk during bark gathering causes tree mortality. This explains the wholesale disappearance of the species from areas where it has been harvested throughout the Philippines, Southeast and South Asia, and East Africa. Research is needed to refine planting techniques and develop bark harvesting methods that do not kill the tree. Until nondestructive procedures for bark collection are finally perfected, C. tagal stands can be planted and harvested on a rotation basis.