The histomorphological changes in the gastrointestinal tract of Epinephelus coioides and associated organs during its early development were studied. Larvae of E. coioides were reared in 5-tonne tanks using the semi-intensive culture system. Larval samples were collected at days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 60. The total length (TL) of about 10-20 larvae per sampling was measured. At least 3 samples were examined from each stage for longitudinal sections using light microscopy. The digestive tract of day 0 larvae was a straight, undifferentiated tube composed of simple cuboidal cells. At day 2, cellular differentiation was observed in the pharynx, oesophagus, primordial stomach and intestine. The primordial stomach broadened into a voluminous pouch at day 10. The gastric gland was observed in the stomach from day 20. Day 35 seemed to be the proper time to feed larvae with minced fish when using the semi-intensive rearing system. Insignificant histomorphological changes in the metamorphosing grouper larvae were observed from days 40-60.

This chapter presents the viral, bacterial, pseudofungal and parasitic diseases in cultured warm freshwater fish. Focus is given on the distribution, causative agent, pathology, diagnosis, prevention and control of these diseases.

In this chapter, the practices of growing Asian seabass in nursery and grow-out culture systems in selected Southeast Asian countries like the Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia are described.

This Chapter outlines the characteristics of L. calcarifer eggs and larvae, the changes during embryonic and larval development, advances in seed production and at the same time highlights the relative ease in its mass production.

The sea cucumber Holothuria scabra (sandfish) was studied to determine what digestive enzymes are present, to perform a basic characterization of their activity, and to attempt to correlate enzyme activity with nutritional status of the animal. Enzymes alpha amylase, protease (as well as chymotrypsin), cellulase, mannanase, agarase, and xylanase were detected. The enzymes trypsin, alginate lyase and laminarinase were also tested for, but the presence of trypsin was inconclusive, and no alginate lyase or laminarinase was detected. The pH optimum of protease was pH 5 and that of alpha amylase pH 7. Alpha amylase, protease, chymotrypsin, cellulase and mannanase continued to digest their substrates over time. A 2-week starvation experiment showed changes in alpha amylase and protease levels. No differences in cellulase, mannanase, agarose or xylanase activity were detected as a result of the starvation experiment. Another starvation experiment wherein sandfish intestines were sampled every 3 days for 15 days showed that only alpha amylase levels changed with starvation. All samples had lower alpha amylase activity after the withdrawal of feed compared to the day 0 samples. These results suggest the possibility of the use of alpha amylase activity as an indicator of nutritional status, particularly feed deprivation, in sandfish.

The focus of this paper is on the governance of small-scale or municipal fisheries in the Philippines in light of the critical role they play in the livelihoods of coastal communities and in the nation as a whole. Annually, some 1.3 million metric tons of fish are harvested from the country’s 17,460 km coastline and 496,000 ha of inland water bodies. This sub-sector contributes significantly to the Philippine economy, supplies the bulk of the dietary fish requirement for over 90 million Filipinos who consume around 38 kg/capita/year, and provides direct employment to 1.4 million fishers. Despite eight national fisheries plans from 1972 to 2010, four major externally funded fisheries programs and thousands of local initiatives, the failures and inadequacies in governance of small-scale fisheries are conspicuous. They are made evident by depleted fishery resources, degraded fish habitats, intensified resource use competition and conflict, post-harvest losses, limited institutional capabilities, inadequate and inconsistent fisheries policies, and weak institutional partnerships. Although there are suitable governance arrangements in place, there needs to be better clarification of management functions between and among the various bodies at different administrative levels. Up-scaling small-scale fisheries management and expanding institutional partnerships would be beneficial. Six ‘core’ strategies are proposed to help promote the sustainability of small-scale fisheries: (1) sustain—conservation and rational use of fishery resources; (2) protect—preventive steps to manage threats to habitats and/or ecosystems that support fisheries; (3) develop—development of small-scale fisheries in geographically-appropriate areas, including promotion of livelihoods; (4) capacitate—enhancing the capacity of municipal fishers and relevant stakeholders; (5) institutionalize—organizational integration including scaling-up of fisheries management; and (6) communicate—generation of pertinent information and translation into appropriate formats for practical transmission. In pursuit of multiple objectives, the governance of small-scale fisheries will continue to be a delicate balancing act. However, it will be the more judicious allocation of administrative resources by local government units to small-scale fisheries, as well as the continuing support of national government agencies and civil society groups, that will be most critical over the longer term.

A review of Kappaphycus (broadly including Eucheuma) farming is presented, including the current possibilities and challenges with the goal of contributing to sustainable mariculture management practices.

Milkfish farming has been, and will remain the backbone of Philippine aquaculture. To date, over 260,000 ha of brackishwater ponds, 6, 700 ha of freshwater pens and about 500 ha of marine pens and cages are used to culture this fish. Average milkfish annual production since 1990 is 206,840 mt valued at over ten billion pesos. Annual per capita consumption of milkfish is about 2 kg or 7. 5 % of the total fish (26. 8 kg/per capita) consumed by every Filipino. By the year 2020, the population is predicted to reach 112 million and will require 224,000 mt of milkfish. If production growth rate is maintained at 2.3%, an estimated 400,000 mt will be produced by the year 2020 generating surplus production of close to 200,000 mt. The development of value-added products from the surplus produce will be needed to enhance acceptability of milkfish in the export market and the changing food preference of younger generations. This paper presents a brief overview of the current status of the milkfish industry in the Philippines. Details of, breeding and hatchery technologies, farming systems, marketing, value-added products and research and development are in the various chapters of this book.

Culture of milkfish in brackish water ponds has been practiced for many years in the Philippines and recently its culture has expanded to fish cages in marine waters. Following the spontaneous spawning of milkfish in floating net cages in 1979, protocols for its seed production were developed. Studies to determine sustainable culture techniques in ponds and cages were conducted. Studies on nutritional requirements of milkfish at different developmental stages were done to reduce dependence on live prey organisms during hatchery operations and optimize feed formulations for nursery and grow-out cultures. In recent years, research geared towards the environmental impact of milkfish culture and ways to mitigate the negative effects of intensive farming practices. Prospects for the milkfish industry are discussed in light of the recent advances in milkfish R&D and Philippine government initiatives to increase fish production by mariculture.

Culture of groupers in ponds and floating net cages has been practiced for many years in the Philippines. Unsustainable culture practices such as dependence on wild caught seeds, use of trash fish, use of high stocking densities, and unregulated expansion and proliferation of fish cages, have led to the "boom and bust" cycle of grouper aquaculture in the Philippines. The drastic decrease in grouper aquaculture production in the late 90's was mainly attributed to environmental deterioration and diseases outbreaks. To sustain grouper production, research on the breeding, seed production and culture of groupers started in the mid 1980s. As a regional inter-government R&D organization, the Aquaculture Department of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC/AQD) followed the recommendations of the 1987 Seminar-Workshop on Aquaculture Development in Southeast Asia on grouper R&D. Research activities initially focused on market survey of grouper species in the Philippines and Southeast Asia, assessment of fry and availability in traditional fishing grounds, and development of broodstock management techniques. Following the spontaneous spawning of Epinephelus coioides in concrete tanks and floating net cages in 1990's, protocols for the seed production of milkfish and sea bass were adapted and modified. Parallel studies to determine sustainable culture techniques in ponds and net cages were conducted. Studies on the nutritional requirements of grouper at various developmental stages were done to reduce dependence on live prey organisms and trash fish as feeds. Research geared towards health management started in the in late 90's to early 2000's. Prospects for grouper aquaculture are discussed in the light of recent advances in grouper R&D and the Government of the Philippines initiatives to increase fish production by mariculture.